Battery structures and related methods

ABSTRACT

An electrochemical device includes a first electrode in electrical communication with a first current collector, a second electrode in electrical communication with a second current collector and a crosslinked solid polymer in contact with the first and second electrodes. At least one of the first and second electrodes includes a network of electrically connected particles comprising an electroactive material, and the particles of one electrode exert a repelling force on the other electrode when the first and second electrodes are combined with an uncrosslinked precursor to the solid polymer.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application is a continuation in part application of co-pending application Ser. No. 10/206,662 filed Jul. 27, 2002, entitled “Battery Structures, Self-Organizing-Structures and Related Methods,” which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to co-pending provisional application serial No. 60/308,360, filed Jul. 27, 2001 and entitled “Self-Organizing Structures and Associated Methods,” the contents of which are incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0002] 1. Field of the Invention

[0003] The present invention relates generally to bipolar devices and methods of making such structures. The present invention also relates to self-organizing devices, and more particularly to combinations of materials that can spontaneously form networks resulting in bipolar devices, and methods thereof.

[0004] 2. Description of the Related Art

[0005] Rechargeable batteries enjoy an enormous and constantly growing global market due to their implementation in, for example, cellular telephone, laptop computers and other consumer electronic products. In addition, the development of electrically powered vehicles represents an immense potential market for these batteries.

[0006] The lithium rechargeable battery is an attractive technology due to its comparatively high energy density, low potential for environmental and safety hazard, and relatively low associated materials and processing costs. The lithium battery is charged by applying a voltage between the battery's electrodes, which causes lithium ions and electrons to be withdrawn from lithium hosts at the battery's cathode. Lithium ions flow from the cathode to the battery's anode through an electrolyte to be reduced at the anode, the overall process requiring energy. Upon discharge, the reverse occurs; lithium ions and electrons are allowed to re-enter lithium hosts at the cathode while lithium is oxidized to lithium ions at the anode, an energetically favorable process that drives electrons through an external circuit, thereby supplying electrical power to a device to which the battery is connected.

[0007] Currently known cathode storage compounds such as LiCoO₂ and LiMn₂O₄ when used with currently known anodes such as lithium metal or carbon have working voltages between 3 and 4V. For many applications a high voltage and low weight are desirable for the cathode as this leads to high specific energy. For example, for electrical vehicle applications the energy-to-weight ratio of the battery determines the ultimate driving distance between recharging.

[0008] Cathodes in state-of-the-art rechargeable lithium batteries contain lithium ion host materials, electronically conductive particles to electronically connect the lithium ion hosts to a current collector (i.e., a battery terminal), a binder, and a lithium-conducting liquid electrolyte. The lithium ion host particles typically are particles of lithium intercalation compounds, and the electronically conductive particles are typically made of a substance such as a high surface area carbon black or graphite. The resulting cathode includes a mixture of particles of average size typically on the order of no more than about 10 to 30 microns.

[0009] Anodes for rechargeable lithium-ion batteries typically contain a lithium host material such as graphite, electronically conductive particles to electronically connect the lithium ion hosts to a current collector (i.e., a battery terminal), a binder, and a lithium conducting liquid electrolyte. Alternatives to graphite or other carbons as the lithium ion host have been described by Idota et al., in Science 1997, 276, 1395, and by Limthongkul et al., in “Nanocomposite Li-Ion Battery Anodes Produced by the Partial Reduction of Mixed Oxides,” Chem. Mat. 2001.

[0010] In such cathodes or anodes, for reliable operation, good contact between particles should be maintained to ensure an electronically conductive pathway between lithium host particles and the external circuit, and a lithium-ion-conductive pathway between lithium host particles and the electrolyte.

[0011] A solid polymer electrolyte is used as the ion conduction medium between the anode and cathode in some applications. A typical solid polymer electrolyte is composed of polymers having electron-donating atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus, together with a complex of lithium salt. Armand et al., in “Fast Ion Transport in Solids”, P. Vashishta, J. N. Mundy and G. K. Shenoy, Eds., North-Holland, Amsterdam (1979), p.131, describe the use of poly(ethylene oxide) and other polyethers doped with various alkali metal salts as solid polymer electrolytes for battery applications. Subsequently, a great variety of ionically conductive solid polymer electrolytes based on a variety of lithium-ion complexing polymers have been reported (see, e.g., F. M. Gray, “Solid Polymer Electrolytes: Fundamentals and Technological Applications”, VCH, New York (1991)). More recently, detailed performance characteristics of an all-solid-state Li_(x)MnO₂/Li polymer battery system were reported by Sakai et al., in the Journal of Electrochem. Soc. 149 (8), A967 (2002).

[0012] The ion conductivity of the solid polymer electrolyte is usually increased as the segmental motion of the polymer chain in increased. Therefore, the crystalline region within the polymer structure has to be minimized to increase the non-crystalline regions. Furthermore, linear or branched solid polymer electrolytes demonstrate poor mechanical properties. The mechanical properties of the polymer are shown to improve when the polymer chains are crosslinked.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0013] In one aspect of the invention, an electronic device is described. The device includes a first electrode in electrical communication with a first current collector, a second electrode in electrical communication with a second current collector, and a crosslinked solid polymer in contact with the first and second electrodes. At least one of the first and second electrodes is comprised of a network of electrically connected particles including an electroactive material, and the particles of at least one electrode exert a repelling force on the other electrode when the first and second electrodes are combined with an uncrosslinked precursor to the solid polymer.

[0014] The electronic device is a device that has two conductive electrodes and a separating medium between the two electrodes. The separating medium can be ionically conducting or insulating. Examples of electronic devices include batteries, capacitors, diodes, and photovoltaics.

[0015] The electrochemical device can be a self-organized device, such as the self-organized battery system (SBS) described in co-pending application U.S. Ser. No. 10/206,662, which is incorporated herein by reference. A polymer electrolyte precursor is used in the assembly of the device, which is then crosslinked to form a solid polymer electrolyte. The crosslinked ionically conductive polymeric material can serve as the electrolyte as well as an in situ formed separator in the electrochemical device.

[0016] In another aspect of the invention, a method for making an electronic device is provided. The method includes combining first particles, second particles and a liquid polymer precursor to a solid polymer, where the first and second particles are selected to exert a repelling force on each other when combined with the polymer precursor. At least a portion of the first particles are segregated into a first spatial region that is essentially free of the second particles to form a network of electrically-connected first particles to form a first electrode. At least a portion of the second particles are segregated into a second spatial region that is essentially free of the first particles to form a network of electrically-connected second particles to form the second electrode. The polymer precursor is in communication with both the first and second electrodes, and the polymer precursor is then crosslinked to form a solid polymer. The polymer can be insulating or ionically conducting.

[0017] In another aspect of the invention, a method for making an electronic device is provided. The method includes applying a composition comprising first particles and a liquid polymer precursor to a solid polymer onto a first electrode surface. The first particles are selected to exert a repelling force against the first electrode surface when combined with the polymer precursor. At least a portion of the first particles are segregated into a first spatial region that is essentially isolated from the first electrode surface to form a second electrode, wherein the polymer precursor is in communication with both the first and second electrodes. The polymer precursor is then crosslinked to form a solid polymer. The polymer can be insulating or ionically conducting.

[0018] The precursor to the solid polymeric material is chosen such that the interaction between appropriate first and second electrodes, i.e., the anode and the cathode, is repulsive and the interaction between like particles (anode-anode or cathode-cathode interaction) is attractive, thereby providing electrical connection between like particles, while maintaining physical separation and thus electronic isolation between the anode and cathode materials. The polymer precursor has sufficiently low viscosity prior to crosslinking that the mixture of this liquid and the dispersed active particles is processable, i.e. can be tape cast, coated, extruded, etc. In addition, it is of a viscosity that permits self-organization of the first and second particles.

[0019] Selection of suitable polymer precursors is guided in part by the relationship between refractive index and London dispersion forces of the device components, namely that for materials 1 and 3 in medium 2, a repulsive interaction is expected between materials 1 and 3 when the relative refractive indices, n, are such that n₁<n₂<n₃ or n₁>n₂>n₃. Thus, repulsion between anode and cathode is expected when the refractive index of the liquid polymer precursor is intermediate between those of the anode and cathode materials.

[0020] In one or more embodiments, the ionic conductivity of the crosslinked solid polymer electrolyte is sufficient to provide the required performance in the electrochemical device, e.g., an SBS battery or other self-organized bipolar electrochemical device. In other embodiments, a liquid electrolyte or additive is combined with the solid polymer electrolyte to provide ionic conductivity at a level required for performance of the device as an SBS battery or other self-organized bipolar electrochemical device.

[0021] In both cases the mechanical stability of the electrolyte layer is such that the cathode network does not come in contact with the anode network after many charge-discharge cycles. In both cases the electrochemical stability of the electrolyte layer is such that the impedance of the cell does not significantly increase after many charge-discharge cycles.

[0022] As used herein, the term “about” is used to mean approximately, in the region of, roughly, or around. When the term “about” is used with a numerical range, it modifies that range by extending the boundaries above and below the numerical values set forth. In general, the term “about” is used herein to modify a numerical value above and below a stated value by 20%.

[0023] As used herein, the recitation of a numerical range for a variable is intended to convey that the invention may be practiced with the variable equal to any of the values within that range. Unless specifically indicated otherwise, the word “or” is used in the “inclusive” sense of “and/or” and not the “exclusive” sense of “either/or.”

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING

[0024] Preferred, non-limiting embodiments of the present invention will be described by way of examples with reference to the accompanying figures, in which:

[0025]FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of a conventional anode/cathode, shown here in charging mode;

[0026]FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration showing a self-organizing bipolar device according to one or more embodiments of the present invention;

[0027]FIG. 3 illustrates the fabrication of a self-organizing electrochemical device;

[0028]FIG. 4 illustrates the fabrication of a self-organizing electrochemical device; and

[0029]FIG. 5 is a schematic of the configuration used to demonstrate electrical isolation between a 50 vol. % glassy carbon bead electrode (balance crosslinkable polymer electrolyte) and a conductive substrate due to the in-situ separator formed by the crosslinkable polymer electrolyte.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0030] A lithium ion battery will be used to generally describe the various aspects of the present invention. The description of such a lithium ion bipolar device is meant to be exemplary and the use of the various features and aspects of the present invention to other systems is considered to be within the scope of the present invention. Self-organizing particulate structures can be used for energy storage or energy conversion systems including, but not limited to, primary (disposable) and secondary (rechargeable) batteries, capacitors, diodes, and hybrid electrochemical capacitors.

[0031] A conventional bipolar device is schematically depicted in FIG. 1. The bipolar device 10 can be an energy storage system having a cathode 14 and anode 12 that are spaced apart from each other by spacer region 22 containing an electrolyte 16. A carbonaceous conducting additive and an electrolyte material are added to the energy storage material, e.g., lithium cobalt oxide, to improve the electronic and ionic conductivity, respectively.

[0032] The lithium battery can be charged by applying a voltage between the electrodes 12 and 14, which causes lithium ions and electrons to be withdrawn from lithium hosts at the battery's cathode. Lithium ions flow from cathode 14 to anode 12 through ionically conductive region 24 of the cathode and through the electrolyte 16 to be reduced at the anode. During discharge, the reverse occurs; lithium ions and electrons enter lithium hosts 20 at cathode 14 while lithium is oxidized to lithium ions at anode 12, which is typically an energetically favorable process that drives electrons through an external circuit 18, thereby supplying electrical power to a device to which the battery is connected. For improved operation, the electrode should provide fast transport for both electrons and lithium ions.

[0033] The electrode structures described herein can be fabricated using self-organization. The selection of materials that exert attracting and repelling forces on one another produces self-organizing structures, specifically, self-organizing bipolar devices. A “repelling” or “repulsive” force is understood to mean a surface force that isolates the anode and cathode components from one another. The anode and cathode materials are isolated by an intervening or wetting layer of at least molecular dimensions (greater than about 1 nm) of the electrolyte. Surface forces can be used to self-organize a wide range of electrochemical devices described herein including, for example, batteries, capacitors, electrochromics, fuel cells, diodes and hybrid devices.

[0034] The principle for using surface forces in the organization of bipolar devices is first described. Van der Waals (vdW) forces between molecules and condensed phases are composed of at least three contributions, a Keesom force due to interactions between oriented permanent dipoles, a Debye force due to polarization induced in other molecules by a permanent dipole, and a London dispersion force due to polarization induced in other molecules by oscillations in the electron cloud of interatomic bonds. Of these, the London dispersion force is the most universal since it does not require the existence of permanent dipoles. In most systems, it is the dominant contribution to the vdW force. While dispersion forces can be relatively weak and long-range, their impact is not negligible.

[0035] An important parameter scaling the dispersion force is the Hamaker constant A. For symmetric combinations of two materials, e.g., two plane-parallel surfaces of material 1 separated by a uniform thickness of material 2, or vice versa, the Hamaker constant A₁₂₁=A₂₁₂ is always positive, leading to an attractive dispersion force (F_(vdW)<0). For asymmetric combinations, e.g., two plane-parallel surfaces of materials 1 and 3 separated by a uniform thickness of material 2, the dispersion force can be either attractive or repelling. The repelling case arises where A₁₂₃<0 and F_(vdW)>0.

[0036] The magnitude of the dispersion force can be determined from careful measurements of surface forces such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) or from various approximations using physical properties of the materials involved. Recently, rigorous calculations of Hamaker constants using Lifshitz theory have become possible due to measurements of the spectral optical properties of materials over a very wide frequency range from the IR to deep UV. See, for example, “Full Spectral Calculation of Non-Retarded Hamaker Constants for Ceramic Systems from Interband Transition Strengths,” Solid State Ionics, 75, 13-33 (1994) and J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 83[9], 2117-46 (2000), which are incorporated herein by reference.

[0037] For most materials and especially low refractive index materials (n<2), the dominant interactions occur in the optical frequency range, and the Hamaker constant A₁₂₃ can be approximated to good accuracy using optical index and static dielectric constant approximations, a widely used form of which is: $A_{123} \equiv {{\frac{3}{4}k\quad {T\left( \frac{E_{1} - E_{2}}{E_{1} + E_{2}} \right)}\left( \frac{E_{3} - E_{2}}{E_{3} + E_{2}} \right)} + {\frac{3}{8}\frac{h\quad v_{e}}{\sqrt{2}}\frac{\left( {n_{1}^{2} - n_{2}^{2}} \right)\left( {n_{3}^{2} - n_{2}^{2}} \right)}{\left( {n_{1}^{2} + n_{2}^{2}} \right)^{1/2}\left( {n_{3}^{2} + n_{2}^{2}} \right)^{1/2}\left\{ {\left( {n_{1}^{2} + n_{2}^{2}} \right)^{1/2} + \left( {n_{3}^{2} + n_{2}^{2}} \right)^{1/2}} \right\}}}}$

[0038] The electronic frequency v_(e) corresponds to the mean ionization frequency of the materials present, and is typically about 3×10¹⁵ Hz. k is the Boltzmann's constant and h Plank's constant. The refractive indices in the visible range for mediums 1, 2, and 3 are n₁, n₂, and n₃, respectively. E₁, E₂, E₃ are the static relative dielectric constants. When the indices are ordered as n₁>n₂>n₃ or n₁<n₂<n₃, A₁₂₃ is negative. Thus, the sign and magnitude of the Hamaker constant can be readily estimated from optical and dielectric data, while more precise quantification, where necessary, is possible with full-spectral methods. See, U.S. Ser. No. 10/206,662 for further detail.

[0039] In a self-organizing battery system, a first electrode material, a second electrolyte material and a third electrode material are selected in combination such that the first electrode material exerts self-attractive forces, the third electrode material exerts self-attractive forces, while the first and third electrode materials exert a mutually repelling force when they are separated by the electrolyte or its precursor. The relative forces of the system are generally predicted using the refractive indices of the component materials. In some instances other more precise techniques for determining surface forces may be used. For example, atomic force microscopy may be used to determine surface forces.

[0040] This principle is illustrated in FIG. 2, where two dissimilar materials, material 1 (20) and material 3 (22) are separated by a medium 2 (24). The vdW interaction can be rendered repelling through the judicious selection of materials (characterized by a negative Hamaker constant A₁₂₃) (25). The vdW interaction between particles of like material separated by any other medium is typically attractive. Therefore, particles 1 and 3 in FIG. 2 experience a vdW attraction (26, 28) to particles of their own kind. At a sufficiently high volume fraction of such particles and in the absence of unwanted coulombic or steric repulsion, percolative contact between like particles can occur. If the particles are individually electronically conductive, a continuous electronically conducting network results. Thus in battery systems, where the volume fraction of each storage compound should be maximized for maximum energy density, a percolative network of materials 1 and 3 can form naturally from the minimum volume of material, whereby material 1 is separated from material 3 by material 2. The anode and cathode materials also each make contact to their respective current collectors (29, 30), as shown in FIG. 2. The resultant system is a self-organizing, co-continuous, interpenetrating microstructure in which an electrode is continuously “wired” to a current collector and another electrode to another current collector, while the repelling dispersion force is used to ensure electronic isolation of the two phases from one another. Exemplary devices include writable microbatteries, spin-on flat batteries, printable thick-film batteries and bulk storage batteries.

[0041] A continuum of structures can be created from an initially homogeneous mixture of materials 1, 2, and 3. If (i) the mixture is cured over relatively long periods of time, (ii) the solids loading is relatively low, (iii) the viscosity of material 2 is relatively low, or (iv) the density contrast is relatively high, then the magnitude of segregation on the length scale of the thickness of the device can be high, thereby providing highly segregated branched structures well suited for use as electrodes.

[0042] When used as a battery, the separating medium is an electrolyte, and the electrolyte is ion conducting, but electronically insulating. During processing and self-organization of the device, the electrolyte is of low viscosity so that electrode materials are free to self-organize.

[0043] In co-pending application U.S. Ser. No. 10/206,662, polymer electrolytes or binders are dissolved in solvents to achieve the necessary viscosity for self-organization. In addition, the net index of the solvent plus polymer is intermediate between anode and cathode. Alternatively, a solid polymer electrolyte with refractive index intermediate between the anode and cathode is melt-processed. The solvent based requires removal of the solvent after assembly, giving rise to issues associated with drying time/energy costs, solvent retrieval/disposal or recycling. The potentially significant volume changes and drying stresses upon loss of the solvent can lead to electrical shorts between anode and cathode. Alternatively, in melt processing of a solid polymer electrolyte there is typically a tradeoff between limiting the amount of crystallinity (to maximize ionic conductivity) while maintaining high temperature structural stability, particularly when the electrolyte is also serving as a structural member (as is the case in the current invention.) The use of high molecular weight polymers improves the elevated temperature stability (elevated temperature being between 40 and 80° C.), but at the expense of ease of processability due to high melt viscosities.

[0044] In many applications, it is desired that the electrolyte be a solid polymer electrolyte. The solid polymer electrolyte acts as a microscale separator having sufficient ionic conductivity for the operation of the device. However, typical solid polymer electrolytes, even transformed into a melt at elevated temperatures, are of too high a viscosity for effective self-organization of the component electrode particles.

[0045] It has been discovered that a liquid polymer, oligomer, or monomer electrolyte precursor to a solid polymer electrolyte or binder can be used in the manufacture of an electrochemical device using self-organization of the device components. The use of a low molecular weight precursor provides low viscosity prior to crosslinking as well as good elevated temperature structural stability in the final self-organized battery structure, which is bound and electrically isolated by the in-situ crosslinked polymer electrolyte matrix. In one or more embodiments, the polymer electrolyte precursor is a liquid at room temperature. In one or more embodiments, the precursor has a viscosity of less than about 10⁵ cP, or of less than about 10³ cP, or even of less than about 10² cP before crosslinking.

[0046] The polymer electrolyte precursor is combined with particles to be used in the organization of an electrically connective network to form an electrode. The solids content of the resultant slurry or dispersion is sufficient to provide a percolative pathway of like particles, e.g., 10-80 wt % solids content. The viscosity of the slurry or dispersion provides a processable mixture, i.e., it can be cast, coated or extruded or deposited onto a surface. The composition has a viscosity of less than about 10⁶ cP, or of less than about 10⁵ cP, or even of less than about 10³ cP. A solvent may be added to the polymer electrolyte precursor to improve processibility, by for example lowering the viscosity of the slurry, improving the repulsive characteristics, i.e., altering the refractive index, or enhancing the solubility of a salt. Once crosslinked, the crosslinked solid polymer electrolyte has an ionic conductivity sufficient for the device to function as an electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, swelling of the crosslinked solid polymer electrolyte with a liquid electrolyte to increase ionic conductivity is contemplated, but not required.

[0047] A method of preparing an electrochemical device is described with reference to FIG. 3. In practice, a salt (Li salt for a Li-ion battery system) and, if necessary, an appropriate initiator are dissolved in the polymer electrolyte precursor 302. The appropriate anode materials 301 and cathode materials 303 are dispersed in the crosslinkable liquid polymer electrolyte precursor 302, and cast from applicator 304 as a film 305 onto at least one current collector 306 selected or prepared such that the current collector 306 experiences an attractive interaction with the cathode materials 301 and a repulsive interaction with the anode materials 303. A second current collector (not shown) may be applied to the upper surface, which experiences a repulsive interaction with the cathode and an attractive interaction with the anode. Sufficient time is given to allow self organization to take place, i.e. electrical connection via particle motion of the cathode particles to each other and the cathode current collector, and of the anode particles to each other and the anode current collector, as well as separation (and thus electrical isolation) between the anode and cathode particles. Concurrent with or after self-organization, crosslinking of the polymer electrolyte precursor is carried out, e.g. by (but not limited to) thermal or radiation-induced crosslinking.

[0048] An alternative electrochemical device and a method of its preparation are described with reference to FIG. 4. A salt and, if necessary, an appropriate initiator are dissolved in the polymer electrolyte precursor 402. An active material 404, e.g., a cathode, is deposited on a current collector 406 as a film or other structure. The appropriate active material 408, e.g., anode materials are dispersed in the crosslinkable liquid polymer electrolyte precursor 402, and cast onto the active material structure 404. The current collector 406 is selected or prepared such that the current collector 406 experiences an attractive interaction with the cathode materials 404 and a repulsive interaction with the anode materials 408. A second current collector 410 may be applied to the upper surface, which experiences a repulsive interaction with the cathode and an attractive interaction with the anode. Sufficient time is given to allow self-organization to take place, i.e. electrical connection via particle motion of the anode particles to each other and the anode current collector, as well as separation (and thus electrical isolation) between the anode particles and cathode structure. Concurrent with or after self-organization, crosslinking of the polymer electrolyte precursor is carried out, e.g. by (but not limited to) thermal or radiation-induced crosslinking.

[0049] In one or more embodiments, a polymer electrolyte precursor is used in a sequentially fabricated SBS battery. In this case, a first network of an active material is fabricated, and then a slurry comprised of the second active material and the liquid polymer precursor is introduced to the first network. If the first network is a foam, then the slurry can be infiltrated into the foam. If the first network is a coating, then the slurry can be coated on top of the coating.

[0050] A suitable polymer electrolyte precursor is a liquid at processing temperatures and is capable of crosslinking to form a solid polymer, in that a cubic centimeter of solid polymer does not flow under its own weight under time scales on the order of many days. In some embodiments in which a solid polymer electrolyte is produced via crosslinking, an ionic conductivity suitable for its intended use as an electrochemical cell is achieved by doping a salt into the precursor.

[0051] Exemplary polymer precursors include functionalized polyethers, e.g., polyethers based on poly(oxy methylene), poly(ethylene oxide), poly(propylene oxide) and their copolymers or terpolymers having crosslinkable groups, which may be terminal or distributed along the polymer chain. Useful materials for solid polymer electrolyte precursors are the acrylate and methacrylate esters of polyethers. When the monoester is chosen, it is preferable to have the other (hydroxyl) terminus of the polyether precursor capped with, for example, a methyl group. It has been found that acrylate and methacrylate esters of low molecular weight poly(ethylene glycol)s fulfill the requirements laid out above, namely having sufficient ionic conductivity and providing electrical isolation between the cathode and anode materials, as well as exhibiting low viscosity prior to crosslinking. For example, a highly loaded (50 vol. %) spheroidal carbon slurry in di-acrylate or di-methacrylate-poly(ethylene glycol) forms a carbon particle network that is electrically isolated from a low refractive index, conductive substrate selected to be repulsive to the carbon particles.

[0052] Representative examples of polymer electrolyte precursors include, without limitation, poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate, poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether acrylate, poly(propylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate, and poly(ethylene glycol) phenyl ether acrylate, poly(ethyleneglycol)dimethacrylate (or diacrylate), poly(methyleneglycol) dimethacrylate (or diacrylate), poly(propyleneoxide)dimethacrylate (or diacrylate), and mixtures of any of the preceding compounds. Other representative polymer electrolyte precursors include vinyl-terminated polyethers that are reactive with silane compounds (i.e., compounds containing Si—H bonds) via hydrosilation reactions; and hydroxy terminated or hydroxy substituted polyethers that are reactive with isocyanates, blocked isocyanates, polyphenolics, melamine or melamine formaldehyde condensates, dicarboxylic acid compounds (or their derivatives) and diesters.

[0053] The solid polymer electrolyte precursors can also be crosslinked by means such as e-beam, X-ray, UV, and ionizing radiation, as is known in the polymer crosslinking art. Other means for crosslinking polyether precursors will be obvious to those skilled in the art, and are intended to be included herein.

[0054] The crosslinking agent is employed such that the final, crosslinked, solid polymer electrolyte has a range of molecular weights between crosslinks of about 30-10⁶ g/mol, or about 30-10⁴ g/mol, or about 30-10² g/mol, Exemplary crosslinking agents include agents that decompose to form free-radicals, or that contain two or more carboxylic acids, or diisocyanates, melamines, phenolics, and melamine formaldehyde condensates, and the like. Crosslinking agents known in the art may be used in the practice of the invention.

[0055] The crosslinking agent is employed at an equivalent weight of about 30-10⁶ g/mol, or about 30-10⁴ g/mol, or about 30-10³ g/mol, where an equivalent weight is defined as the molecular weight of polymer between crosslinks. Exemplary crosslinking agents include agents containing two or more carboxylic acids, isocyanates, melanines, phenolics, and melanine formaldehyde condensates, and the like. Crosslinking agents known in the art may be used in the practice of the invention.

[0056] The crosslinking is initiated upon application of energy, such as heat, visible or UV energy, or x-ray, e-beam or gamma ray. A thermal or photo curing initiator can be added, depending on whether the polymer is to be crosslinked by photoreaction or thermally induced crosslinking or other energy source. Exemplary thermal initiators include, without limitation, azoisobutyronitrile (AIBN). Exemplary photoinitiators include, without limitation, H-Nu™ 635 and H-Nu™ 470 from Spectra Group, Cyracure™ products from Union Carbide, Sarcure™ products from Sartomer, and the like.

[0057] A lithium salt (or other salt) can be added to the electrolyte as is the practice in the art. The lithium salt can be added in the amount of about 3 to about 30 wt % or higher based on the weight of the polymer electrolyte. Representative lithium salts include LiClO₄, LiCF₃SO₃, LiBF₄, LiPF₆, LiAsF₆, and Li(CF₃SO₂)₂N, as well as other lithium or other salts used in conventional polymer electrolytes.

[0058] The prevailing focus of solid polymer battery research has been to increase the conductivity of the solid polymer electrolyte material. Although the electrochemical device described herein can benefit from the use of higher conductivity electrolyte, it is not required. Because the ionic conductance of the electrolyte determines transport rates, by decreasing the characteristic lithium ion diffusion length by a factor of >10, or by a factor of 100, as is possible using self-organizing particulate structures, the resulting devices can provide power densities at least equivalent to that of current laminated designs using liquid electrolytes, while using available solid polymer electrolytes. Thus, the smaller dimensions of the device components reduce the ionic conductivity demands of the device. The ionic conductivity is in the range of about 10⁻⁶ S/cm to about 10⁻⁴ S/cm; however, electrolytes having ionic conductivities of less than 10⁻⁴ S/cm at room temperature may be used. In some embodiments, electrolytes having ionic conductivities of less than 10⁻⁵ S/cm at room temperature may be used. An organic liquid electrolyte can be infiltrated into the crosslinked solid polymer electrolyte to provide or enhance lithium conductivity. Other additives can be infiltrated into the crosslinked solid polymer electrolyte to provide or enhance passivation of the electrolyte/active material interface as is known by those skilled in the art. The permeability of the polymer is sufficient to provide absorption of a liquid electrolyte or additive to enable required performance in an SBS battery or other self-organized bipolar electrochemical device.

[0059] The conductive compounds used as lithium storage materials (primarily transition metal oxides, carbon, or metal alloys) tend to have higher refractive indices and dielectric constants than organic compounds useful as the electrolyte. Thus, some otherwise desirable combinations of cathodes and anodes cannot achieve a negative A₁₂₃ using the intrinsic materials properties. A coating can be applied to any of the cathode materials or anode materials so that the combination results in appropriate repelling forces. That is, a coating can be applied to any of the cathode materials to provide a negative A₁₂₃. This is most typically achieved by altering the refractive index of the particle by selecting a coating having a suitable index value. In one or more embodiments, the coating is electronically and ionically conductive.

[0060] The electrode can be a lithium intercalating material. Representative electrode materials for use as the cathode include compounds based on LiCoO₂, LiCoO₂ doped with Mg, LiNiO₂, LiMn₂O₄, LiMnO₂, LiMnO₂ doped with Al, LiFePO₄, LiMnPO₄, LixV6O₁₃, Li₂Fe₂(SO₄)₃, V₂O₅, V₆O₁₁. Representative electrode materials for use as the anode include compounds based on carbon, amorphous carbon, graphite, mesocarbon microbeads, Li, LiAl, LigAl₄, Li₃Al, Zn, LiZn, Ag, LiAg, LiloAg₃, B, Li₅B₄, Li₇B₆, Ge, Si, Li₁₂Si₇, Li₂₁Si₈, Li₁₃Si₄, Li₂₁Si₅, Sn, Li₅Sn₂, Li₁₃Sn₅, Li₇Sn₂, Li₂₂Sn₅, Sb, Li₂Sb, Li₃Sb, Bi, LiBi, Li₃Bi, SnO₂, SnO, MnO, Mn₂O₃, MnO₂, Mn₃O₄, CoO, NiO, FeO, LiFe₂O₄, TiO₂, LiTi₂O₄, and glass with a Sn-B-P-O compound.

[0061] The coating can be a polymer or polymer blend/mixture/solid solution, an inorganic glassy or crystalline compound, or a blend or admixture or composite or solid-solution of the two. The coating can also provide electronic or ionic conductivity. By way of example, the coating can be a conductive polymer or polymer blend that has dielectric and optical properties providing a negative A₁₂₃. Polyaniline, polypyrrole, and their derivatives can be a constituent of such blends as a conductive constituent. As another example, the coating can contain a poly(o-methoxyaniline) or poly(3-octylthiophene) as a conductive constituent, and poly(tetrafluoroethylene) or poly(vinylidene fluoride) as an A₁₂₃ modifying constituent, or blends thereof. As another example, the coating can be a glassy or crystalline oxide, or solid-solution or blend of oxides, that provide electronic and ionic conductivity while also providing a negative A₁₂₃. According to the invention, methods such as sol-gel synthesis, or encapsulation from solutions and suspensions of such materials, are used to provide coatings. Vanadium oxides V_(x)O_(y) containing multivalent vanadium, and mixtures of vanadium oxide with low refractive index oxides such as boron oxide B₂O₃, silicon oxide, SiO or SiO₂, or phosphorus pentoxide P₂O₅, are included amongst such coating materials. See, copending application U.S. Ser. No. ______, filed on even date herewith, and entitled “Electrode and Related Devices” which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0062] Coating the storage particle permits a much wider range of storage materials to be used without being restricted to only those that have the dielectric and refractive index properties to provide A₁₂₃<0. Current collectors also may be coated, in this case to provide an attractive surface force between the collector and its electrode so that the electrode organizes preferably against its surface. In those embodiments where the current collector is coated to provide an attractive surface for one of the materials 1 or 3 (but not the other), suitable coatings include an electronically conductive material having the appropriate refractive index.

[0063] Applying the selection criteria described above, numerous combinations of materials 1, 2 and 3 can be selected, and such combinations can be determined.

[0064] The benefits of this invention include lower manufacturing cost, since less or no solvent is needed in the assembly process and potentially less residual stress is imparted to the device. The volume change during curing is less than that during drying/solvent extraction of a pure solvent-solution-based process. Use of such electrolytes leads to safer, longer lasting cells because of the absence of volatile and flammable liquid electrolytes, which can leak and often react with the highly reducing and oxidizing electrode materials. Furthermore, such batteries offer a greater shape flexibility, as they may not require heavy and expensive metal can packaging.

[0065] The following example are provided to illustrate the invention, which is not intended to be limiting of the invention, the scope of which is set forth in the claims which follow.

EXAMPLE 1 Preparation of a Self-Organizing Battery Using a Crosslinked Polyethylene Glycol Dimethacrylate Solid Polymer Electrolyte

[0066] Polyethylene glycol dimethacrylate (PEG-DMA, molecular weight 770) was used as the crosslinkable polymer electrolyte precursor, into which 10 wt. % LiN(SO₂CF₃)₂ salt was dissolved to instill Li ion conductivity, and 1 wt. % AIBN based on functional methacrylate was dissolved to act as initiator for the thermally induced crosslinking reaction. A mixing was conducted under glovebox conditions (Argon, <1 ppm O₂, <1 ppm H₂O.) Glassy carbon beads (sieved to 20 to 45 μm) were dispersed in the polymer/salt/initiator solution in the volume ratio 1:1 glassy carbon: PEG-DMA via mechanical stirring. A thin layer 500 of carbon/polymer/salt/initiator slurry was then cast onto a thin (5-10 μm) low refractive index conductive composite polymer film 502 on a substrate 510, as shown in FIG. 5. The conductive polymer film included a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) latex acting as the low refractive index matrix material and 6.5 wt. % Baytron™ PH available from Bayer AG (a complex of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) with polystyrenesulfonate in latex form) for providing electrical conductivity. This film formulation is designed to give high electrical conductivity (about 3 S/cm) while maintaining a bulk refractive index in the composite film that is less than that of the polymer electrolyte precursor system. Electrical connection to the carbon-polymer dispersion was made via a Cu mesh current collector 504 which was electrically isolated from the underlying conductive polymer composite film and to which glassy carbon experienced an attractive interaction in the crosslinkable polymer electrolyte. This assembly was left undisturbed for 20 minutes under glovebox conditions to allow the percolating network of carbon particles to form within the polymer electrolyte precursor system as well as to allow the particles near the surface of the conductive polymer composite substrate film 502 to separate from the film via repulsive van der Waals forces. The system was then placed in a 100° C. oven in a glovebox to crosslink for at least 20 minutes, after which the assembly is allowed to cool and electrical measurements are made. Table 1 illustrates the high resistance observed between the conductive film 502 and the current collector 504 using this chemistry in two separate experiments each containing 5 samples. Of ten samples total, 4 exhibited a resistance between the conductive carbon/crosslinked polymer electrolyte composite and the underlying conductive film of >1 MΩ, 5 had resistance between 100 kΩ and 1 MΩ, and only one exhibited a resistance less than 100 kΩ. High resistance across the electrochemical junction is an indication of electrical isolation between the two films. Moreover, the electrical conductivity of the anode particle network within crosslinked polymer was on the order of 1 Ω. Low resistance within the carbon particle network indicates a high power density can be achieved for the battery. The composite of the crosslinked solid polymer electrolyte with the glassy carbon had sufficient strength/mechanical integrity to be handled freely after testing.

EXAMPLE 2 Preparation of a Self-Organizing Battery Using a Crosslinked Polyethylene Glycol Diacrylate Solid Polymer Electrolyte

[0067] Polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEG-DA) was employed as the polymer electrolyte precursor (10 wt. % Li-TFMSI based on polymer electrolyte, 1 wt. % AIBN based on functional groups.) All other conditions were equivalent to those in Example 1. As shown in Table 1, of five samples produced, 2 exhibited a resistance between the conductive carbon/crosslinked polymer electrolyte composite and the underlying film of >1 MΩ, 2 had resistance between 100 kΩ and 1 MΩ, and 1 had a resistance <100 kΩ.

EXAMPLE 3 Preparation of a Self-Organizing Battery Using a Crosslinked Diacrylate/Methacrylate Blend

[0068] A blend of 80 wt. % methoxy(polyethylene glycol)methacrylate and 20 wt. % PEG-DA (80:20 MeOx-PEG-MA:PEG-DA) was employed as the polymer electrolyte precursor (10 wt. % Li-TFMSI based on polymer electrolyte, 1 wt. % AIBN based on functional groups.) All other conditions were equivalent to those in embodiment 1. As shown in Table 1, of five samples produced, all 5 exhibited a resistance between the conductive carbon/crosslinked polymer electrolyte composite and the underlying film of >1 MΩ. TABLE 1 Summary of electrical isolation results between conductive carbon/crosslinked polymer electrolyte composite and the underlying conductive polymer film. Level of PEG-DMA PEG-DMA 80:20 MeOx- electrical run run PEG- PEG-DA:PEG- isolation 1 2 DA DA <100 kΩ 1 0 1 0 100 kΩ − 1 MΩ 2 3 2 0 >1 MΩ 2 2 2 5 Total 5 5 5 5 

What is claimed is:
 1. An electronic device comprising: a first electrode in electrical communication with a first current collector; a second electrode in electrical communication with a second current collector, a crosslinked polymer in contact with the first and second electrodes, wherein at least one of the first and second electrodes is comprised of a network of electrically connected particles comprising an electroactive material, and wherein the particles of at least one electrode exert a repelling force on the other electrode when the first and second electrodes are combined with an uncrosslinked precursor to the polymer.
 2. The device of claim 1, wherein the device is an electrochemical device.
 3. The device of claim 2, wherein the polymer is a solid polymer electrolyte
 4. The device of claim 2, wherein the polymer is an insulating polymer.
 5. The device of claim 1, wherein both first and second electrodes are comprised of an electrically connected network of particles.
 6. The device of claim 2, wherein the first electrode comprises a lithium intercalating material.
 7. The device of claim 2, wherein the second electrode comprises a lithium intercalating material.
 8. The device of claim 1, wherein first electrode is a cathode and the electroactive material is selected from compounds based on LiCoO₂, LiCoO₂ doped with Mg, LiNiO₂, LiMn₂O₄, LiMnO₂, LiMnO₂ doped with Al, LiFePO₄, LiMnPO₄, LixV6O₁₃, Li₂Fe₂(SO₄)₃, V₂O₅, V₆O₁₁.
 9. The device of claim 1, wherein the second electrode is an anode and the electroactive material is selected from compounds based on carbon, amorphous carbon, graphite, mesocarbon microbeads, Li, LiAl, Li₉Al₄, Li₃Al, Zn, LiZn, Ag, LiAg, Li₁₀Ag₃, B, Li₅B₄, Li₇B₆, Ge, Si, Li₁₂Si₇, Li₂₁Si₈, Li₁₃Si₄, Li₂₁Si₅, Sn, Li₅Sn₂, Li₁₃Sn₅, Li₇Sn₂, Li₂₂Sn₅, Sb, Li₂Sb, Li₃Sb, Bi, LiBi, Li₃Bi, SnO₂, SnO, MnO, Mn₂O₃, MnO₂, Mn₃O₄, CoO, NiO, FeO, LiFe₂O₄, TiO₂, LiTi₂O₄, and glass with a Sn B P O compound.
 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the first and second electrode form an interpenetrating structure.
 11. The device of claim 1, wherein the crosslinked solid polymer comprises a crosslinked polyether.
 12. The device of claim 11, wherein the polyether is a methacrylate and/or acrylate of polyethylene glycol.
 13. The device of claim 11, wherein the polymer precursor comprises a crosslinkable poly(oxymethylene), poly(ethylene oxide), poly(propylene oxide), their mixtures, or their copolymers.
 14. The device of claim 11, wherein the solid polymer electrolyte comprises a crosslinked polyurethane formed from the reaction of hydroxy-terminated or hydroxy-substituted poly(ethylene glycol) with polyisocyanates or a polycondensation product of hydroxy-terminated poly(ethylene glycol) with polyphenolics or melamine or melamine formaldehyde condensates.
 15. The device of claim 11, wherein the solid polymer comprises the product of hydrosilanation of vinyl-terminated or vinyl-substituted poly(ethylene glycol) with compounds containing multiple Si—H bonds or an esterification product of a poly(ethylene glycol) with a crosslinking agent comprising carboxylic acid groups.
 16. The device of claim 11, wherein the crosslinked solid polymer comprises a crosslinked methacrylate- and/or acrylate-polyether.
 17. The device of claim 1, where the solid polymer has a molecular weight between crosslinks of about 30 to 10⁶ g/mol.
 18. The device of claim 1, where the solid polymer has a molecular weight between crosslinks of about 30 to 10⁴ g/mol.
 19. The device of claim 1, where the solid polymer has a molecular weight between cross links of about 30 to 100 g/mol.
 20. The device of claim 1, wherein the solid polymer is an electrolyte and has an ionic conductivity of greater than about 10⁻⁷ S/cm.
 21. The device of claim 1, wherein the solid polymer is an electrolyte and has an ionic conductivity of greater than about 10⁻⁶ S/cm.
 22. The device of claim 1, wherein the solid polymer is an electrolyte and has an ionic conductivity of greater than about 10⁻⁵ S/cm.
 23. A composition for use in the formation of an electronic device, comprising: a mixture of a liquid polymer precursor that is crosslinkable to form a solid polymer; at least one component of a first electrode; and at least one component of a second electrode, wherein the components of the first and second electrode are selected to exert a repelling force on each other combined with the
 24. The composition of claim 23, wherein the composition has a viscosity of less than about 100000 cP.
 25. The composition of claim 23, wherein the composition has a viscosity of less than about 10000 cP.
 26. The composition of claim 23, wherein the composition has a viscosity of less than about 1000 cP.
 27. The composition of claim 23, wherein the polymer precursor has a viscosity in the range of about 10 to 10000 cP, or about 10 to 1000 cP, or about 10 to 100 cP.
 28. The composition of claim 23, wherein the at least one component of the first electrode is present at a % wt. solids in the range of about 10 to
 80. 29. The composition of claim 23, wherein the at least one component of the second electrode is present at a % wt. solids in the range of about 10 to
 80. 30. The composition of claim 23, wherein the polymer precursor comprises a crosslinkable poly(oxymethylene), poly(ethylene oxide), poly(propylene oxide), their mixtures, or their copolymers.
 31. The composition of claim 23, wherein the polymer precursor comprises a hydroxy-terminated poly(ethylene glycol).
 32. The composition of claim 23, wherein the composition further comprises a crosslinking agent.
 33. The composition of claim 32, wherein the polymer precursor is crosslinkable with polyisocyanates, polyphenolics, melamine or melamine formaldehyde condensates.
 34. The composition of claim 23, wherein the polymer precursor is vinyl terminated.
 35. The composition of claim 23, wherein the polymer electrolyte precursor is crosslinkable upon application of heat.
 36. The composition of claim 23, wherein the liquid polymer electrolyte is crosslinkable upon application of visible or uv energy, x-ray, e-beam or gamma ray.
 37. A method of preparing an electronic device comprising: combining a plurality of first particles, a plurality of second particles and a polymer precursor to a solid polymer electrolyte, said first and second particles selected to exert a repelling force on each other when combined with said crosslinkable liquid polymer; segregating at least a portion of the first particles into a first spatial region that is essentially free of the second particle to form a network of electrically connected first components to form a first electrode; segregating at least a portion of the second particles into a second spatial region that is essentially free of the first particle to form a network of electrically connected second particles to form the second electrode, wherein the polymer precursor is in communication with both the first and second electrodes; and crosslinking the polymer precursor to form a solid polymer.
 38. A method of preparing an electrochemical device comprising: applying a composition comprising a plurality of first particles and a polymer precursor to a solid polymer onto a first electrode surface, said first particles selected to exert a repelling force against the first electrode surface when combined with said polymer precursor; segregating at least a portion of the first particles into a first spatial region that is essentially isolated from the first electrode surface to form a second electrode; wherein the polymer precursor is in communication with both the first and second electrodes; and crosslinking the liquid precursor to form an solid polymer.
 39. The method of claim 37, wherein the polymer precursor is a methacrylate and/or acrylate of polyethylene glycol.
 40. The method of claim 39, wherein the polymer precursor comprises a crosslinkable poly(oxymethylene), poly(ethylene oxide), poly(propylene oxide), their mixtures, or their copolymers.
 41. The method of claim 37, wherein the polymer precursor comprises a hydroxy-terminated poly(ethylene glycol).
 42. The method of claim 37, wherein the polymer precursor is crosslinkable with polyisocyanates, polyphenolics, melamine or melamine formaldehyde condensates.
 43. The method of claim 37, wherein the polymer precursor is vinyl terminated.
 44. The method of claim 37, wherein the polymer precursor has a viscosity in the range of about 10 to 10000 cP, or about 10 to 1000 cP, or about 10 to 100 cP.
 45. The method of claim 37, wherein at least one component of the first electrode is present at a % wt. solids in the range of about 10-80.
 46. The method of claim 37, wherein the at least one component of the second electrode is present at a % wt. solids in the range of about 10-80.
 47. The method of claim 37 wherein the composition further comprises a crosslinking agent.
 48. The method of claim 37, wherein the polymer precursor is crosslinkable upon application of heat.
 49. The method of claim 37, wherein the liquid polymer electrolyte is crosslinkable upon application of visible or uv energy, x-ray, e-beam or gamma ray. 